How does the Bill of Rights apply to state governments?

The application of the Bill of Rights to state governments primarily occurs through the incorporation doctrine established by the Fourteenth Amendment. This doctrine means that most of the protections guaranteed in the Bill of Rights have been interpreted to apply to state governments, not just the federal government. The Fourteenth Amendment, particularly its Due Process Clause, has been used as a vehicle to extend these rights to include protections against state infringement.

Before this doctrine was established, the Bill of Rights applied exclusively to the federal government. However, through various landmark Supreme Court cases, such as Gitlow v. New York and others, the Court has gradually incorporated many of these rights to apply at the state level. This has ensured that individuals enjoy similar protections from both federal and state actions, thereby promoting a unified standard of civil liberties across the United States.

The other options do not accurately describe how the Bill of Rights applies to state governments, as incorporation through state legislation or direct congressional mandate does not effectively encompass the judicial interpretation that has led to the current understanding of the Bill of Rights' application. Federal judicial review does play a role in overseeing state laws, but without the incorporation doctrine through the Fourteenth Amendment, the Bill of Rights would remain inapplicable to the states. Hence, the incorporation doctrine